The word perfume comes from the Latin phrase, "per" meaning "through" and "fumus" meaning smoke." The French later gave the name parfum to the pleasant smells that drift through the air from burning incense.
The first form of perfume was incense. The Mesopotamians first discovered incense about 4,000 years ago. Ancient cultures burned many kinds of resins, bums and woods at their religious ceremonies. They often soaked the fragrant woods and resins in water and oil, and rubbed their bodies with the liquid. They also embalmed the dead with these perfumes. Since the Egyptians believed that the soul ascended into heaven, relatives saw to it that perfume accompanied the spirit.
Perfumed oils were applied to the skin for either cosmetic or medicinal purposes. During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, perfumes were reserved exclusively for religious rituals such as cleansing ceremonies. The use of perfume then spread to Greece, Rome, and the Islamic world. And it was the Islamic community that kept the use of perfumes since the spread of Christianity led to a decline in the use of perfume. With the fall of the Roman Empire, perfume's influence decreased. Perfume enjoyed huge success during the seventeenth century. Perfumed gloves became popular in France and in 1656; the guild of glove and perfume-makers was established. The use of perfume in France grew steadily. The court of Louis XV was even named "the perfumed court" due to the scents, which were applied daily not only to the skin but also to clothing, fans and furniture.
In the 19th century, two important changes occurred in the Western world of fragrance. France became the leader in reestablishing the therapeutic uses of fragrance.
Today there are over 30,000 designer perfumes on the market and perfumes are no longer for the wealthy. The perfume industry has undergone several changes in technique, material and style. All of which have created the modern fragrance industry, one that still incorporates creativity, mystique and romance along with marketing to appeal to the masses.
Perfume Glossary
Absinthe: It is a strong herbal liqueur distilled with herbs like anise, licorice, hyssop, veronica, fennel, lemon balm, angelica and wormwood.
Absolute: Also known as an essence, this is the material extracted from a plant or flower using one of various solvents.
Accord: Perfume accords are a balanced blend of three or four notes which lose their individual identity to create a completely new, unified odor impression.
Aerosol: It�s the spraying and/or foaming of liquid or solid materials by propellant agents from pressurized cans.
Aftershave: Less strong, it is the most popular choice and lasts for 2 to 3 hours. Aftershaves are kinder to the skin than EDT's. Those with very sensitive skin should use aftershave balms.
Agar wood: From the Aquilaria tree, and also called Oud or Aloes wood. The tree, when attacked by a common fungus, produces an aromatic resin that has long been used in the Middle East as a source of incense and perfume, now considered endangered in the wild due to over-harvesting.
Alcohol: It�s used in the perfume industry as a solvent for the production of lotions. An often-used alcohol is ethyl alcohol.
Aldehydic: It�s the term for the odor-effect produced by the use of short-chain aliphatic aldehydes. This effect can be described as fatty, watery or even "snuffed candle". When concentrated, aldehydes are extremely powerful and pungent. Aldehydes are used in all perfume types, especially those that feature elegant feminine notes.
Amber: In perfumery, this usually refers to plant compounds (such as labdanum) or synthetics, which have an ambergris-like scent. In general, it�s a heavy, full-bodied, powdery, warm fragrance note.
Ambrette: Oil obtained from these seeds has a musk-like odor and is frequently used as a substitute for true musk.
Animalic: Refers to animal-derived ingredients such as civet, ambergris, musk, and castoreum. These are usually replaced by synthetics in modern perfumery. In large amounts, many of these notes are unpleasant, but in smaller amounts they provide depth and a sensual feel to a fragrance.
Anise: An annual herb of the parsley family, grown for its fruits (aniseed), which have a strong, licorice-like flavor.
Anosmia: The inability to smell odors. Many people have selective anosmias, for instance, total anosmia can occur as the result of injury or illness but is relatively rare and partial anosmia is a common phenomenon where people have selective insensitivity or blindness to particular materials smells or groups of smells. As for Benzyl Salicylate and Macro cyclic musks are common examples. Some people on first exposure to a new material may claim not to be able to smell it but after several exposures their ability to smell it improves.
Aqueous: It�s a recent designation for scents that are based more on a concept of a �watery� smell than an actual scent.
Aroma Chemicals: Chemicals that have a smell and/or taste and are used in perfumes or flavors. Should note be confused with the term Aromatic Chemicals that refers to the Benzene ring structure found in many organic compounds.
Aromachology: The science dedicated to the study of the interrelationship between psychology and aroma.
Aromatic: The term in perfumery refers to the rich aroma and odor of fragrances, scents and perfumes.
Aromatherapy: Therapy with aroma. It�s the art and science of using essential oils to heal common ailments and complaints. It particularly helps with stress or emotionally triggers problems such as insomnia and headaches.
Ayurvedic: It�s the ancient Hindu art of medicine, herbs to prolong life.
Back Notes: The back note is the third and last phase of a perfume's life on the skin, or evaporation. It contains the lasting ingredients, such as woods, resins, animal and crystalline substances. In heavy perfumes (chypre and Oriental notes, for instance) the back note is so strongly accented that it is discernible in the top-note, or first impression.
Balsamic: is a fragrance impression that can be described as sweet, soft and warm. Basically, balsamic notes result from the use of balsams and resins in perfume compositions. The Oriental perfumes in particular are characterized by balsamic ingredients.
Balsams: are vicious secretions of plants that emerge when the plant's outer layers are injured. Unlike the resinoids, balsams do not require an extraction process prior to their being used in perfumery.
Bitter: is the fragrance impression that corresponds to bitterness in terms of taste. It is produced by a combination of roots (such as vetiver), herbs (such as wormwood), animal notes (such as in leather) and others. Bitter accents are to be found mainly in masculine fragrances.
Bouqet: is a mixture of various floral notes. Often, the bouquet is the most important ingredient of the middle-note in a perfume. Bouquetting is the embellishment, harmonizing and rounding-off of a composition.
Camphoraceous: notes have a fresh, clean, medicinal smell. In Nature, they are present in lavandin, rosemary, and conifer oils, among others. These notes are widely used in the perfume industry in the perfuming of bath products.
Chypre: Today, chypre is the collective term for a group of perfumes which get their character through the combination of a fresh Eau de Cologne-like top note and a foundation that comprises as main elements oak moss, labdanum and patchouly. Many warm, erotic, sensual perfumes belong to the chypre family. One of the classics is "Chypre/Coty," a perfume that has been on the market since the beginning of this century.
Citrus Notes: have a fresh, light character. They come from the family of the agrumen oils (bergamot, lemon, lime, mandarin, orange, bitter orange). In addition to these there are a number of synthetic substances that have the fresh character of citrus in different variations.
Coniferous: is the odor impression that is reminiscent of pine, spruce, juniper and others of this family. Conifer oils are mainly used in bath products and in masculine fragrances.
Composition or Compound: Every perfume is a composition of harmoniously adjusted individual components. The characteristics of the individual ingredients are used to create a new and unique overall character in which the individual characteristics of the ingredients recede in favor of the combination but at the same time, are not themselves obliterated.
Creation: is the making of a new perfume oil corn position. Creative work is an art which in nevertheless influenced by economic considerations, so perhaps "skilled craft" would be a more, appropriate description.
Crystalline: A certain amount of crystalline fragrance sub stances can be dissolved, without problems, in the, liquid ingredients of a perfume oil. In general they possess good fixative properties. But to( high a percentage of crystalline substances, an( especially low temperatures, can cause what i known as "crystallizing-out"-the appearance o crystals in the liquid.
Distillation: by steam is the most commonly-use( process for the production of essential oils. In this procedure, steam flows through the distillation material and sweeps the essential oils along with it. After cooling, the distillation water is separated from the essential oil in so-called Florentine flasks.
Dry: is the term for the odor-effect, the reverse o "sweet" or "warm", achieved through the use o ingredients such as woods, mosses, herbs and sc on. Dry notes are used mainly in masculine per fumes and are particularly useful as fresh, day time fragrances.
Eau De Cologne: is a solution of approximately 3 % to 5 % perfume oil in an alcohol/water mix. The classical "eau de Cologne" is a composition of fresh, light, volatile essential oils (pre dominantly citrus oils) which contains few, if any fixatives. Eau de Cologne is intended to be refreshing, and has a limited perfuming effect.
Eau De Parfum: is a solution of perfume oil (15 %-18 %) in alcohol (85 % to 82%).
Eau De Toilette: is a solution of 4 % -8 % perfume oil in alcohol.
Earthy: is the adjective used to describe the fragrance impression of earth, forest-soil, mold, dust, etc. Vetiver and patchouly are well-known essential oils possessing earthy characteristics. Earthy accents in perfumes are not pronounced, always subtle.
Encapsulation: To encapsulate, in the perfume industry sense of the word, means to enclose perfume oils in tiny gelatin capsules. These capsules can be applied to the skin together with an alcoholic perfume. When the skin is rubbed, the capsules are broken and the scent of the oil is released, "renewing" the perfume. Tests involving this method of perfuming have been made with textiles.
Enfleurage: is a process for the extraction of valuable plant extracts. Plates of glass, covered on both sides with animal fat into which blossoms have been pressed, are placed on wooden frames. Spent blossoms are constantly replaced until the at is saturated with fragrance substance. Then, he blossom oil is separated from the fat through extraction. This procedure is rarely used today, because it is so costly.
Eortic: Perfumes which, in addition to their general )leasing and harmonious qualities, are also accented. with warm animal notes in combination with certain flower oils, are said to have an erotic effect. Much depends on the user, though-and he circumstances!
Essences: are alcoholic or aqueous plant extracts. They are hardly ever used in the perfume industry today, but they are widely employed in the cosmetic and flavor industries.
Essential Oils: (Ethereal) oils are extracted from various plant parts through pressing or steam distillation. They are natural mixtures of various chemical substances. Unlike fatty oils, they evaporate without leaving a residue.
Evaluation: means the selection of fragrances, for a specific purpose, from a number of available alternatives. In recent years a whole new profession has emerged in the perfume industry consisting of experts who specialize in this work. They are known as evaluators. Evaluation is work which requires not only talent, knowledge and training, but also a feeling for what the market wants at any particular time. The evaluators (women, in many instances) are an important link between the creators and the users of perfumes.
Expression: is an especially mild process for the extraction of essential oils, used in cases where steam distillation would modify or damage the end-product. Expression is used mainly for the extraction of citrus oils.
Extracion: is the process of removing raw materials from plant and animal substances through the use of various solvents. Most of the valuable natural fragrance materials are produced in this manner.
Extrait: generally, means the most concentrated form of perfume sold over the counter. It is a solution of 15 % -30 % perfume oil in high-grade alcohol.
Fatty: is the same name for the odor that suggests oil, lard, wax and so on. In small doses, these notes are reminiscent of the smell of human skin. They can therefore contribute to the erotic effect of a scent.
Femme: In the context of perfumery, femininity is a quality that is judged subjectively. Any perfume that underlines the womanly attributes of its wearer can be termed feminine, though much depends on the rapport between fragrance and user. Perfumes with floral accents are generally considered to be especially feminine. Of course, this does not prevent women from using scents that are considered to have a masculine character, but the majority uses those with feminine characteristics.
Fixing: is a process that promotes the retention of the fragrance on the skin as long as possible. To achieve this, heavy, non-volatile substances are used which develop their full fragrance intensities only very slowly, and maintain them for longer periods. Substances are also used for this purpose which have no strong odors of their own, but have the ability to make other fragrances last longer. Good substantivity is a characteristic of every well-constructed fragrance composition. It should be noted that an excessive amount of fixative in a perfume is no guarantee of good retention, because substances can hinder one another in their fragrance diffusion.
Floral: Today, over half of the branded perfumes are characterized by the adjective "floral." They contain well-defined flower notes (lily of the valley, for example, as in DIORISSIMO by Christian Dior), or a whole bouquet of floral effects, as in QUELQUES FLEURS by Houbigant. As a matter of fact, all perfumes contain floral notes in some quantity.
Floral-Fruity: perfumes are those that have a noticeably fruity element, especially in the top note, as an accessory to the main theme, which is always floral. Excesses of fruitiness are to be avoided as they would suggest food-flavor rather than perfume.
Formula: The formula of a perfume compound gives full details of its components-quality and quantity wise-and is used like a recipe for preparing the mixture. To formulate a perfume can take many, many years of experiments. Formulas, holding a company's Know How, is jealously-guarded trade secrets, sometimes handed down from generation to generation.
Fougere: is a fantasy term in perfumery. It is the name of a combination of fresh herbaceous lavender notes on a mossy foundation. Fougere notes occur in many fantasy fragrances-especially in masculine perfumes.
Fragrance Blotters: are narrow strips of absorbent paper about 15 centimeters long with which scent samples are taken and smelled. On smelling strips, the evaporation of fragrance materials and perfume oils can be observed in the different phases they go through. Final judgement of a perfume must always be made on the skin, however.
Fragance Components (Ingredients): All the materials which the perfumers put together to form a perfume composition are known as fragrance components. These are uniform chemical substances, natural products and simple or complex mixtures - the so-called bases and specialties.
Fragrance Diffusion: Fragrance development is the general behavioral pattern of a perfume in the hands of its user. A good perfume should perform three functions. These are:
* Immediate impact on opening the bottle.
* Noticeable emanation from the skin in all phases of fragrance evaporation.
* Noticeable scent in the area that surrounds the user.
Fragrance Material: The fragrance material industry is a branch of the chemical industry. This industry includes the producers of natural and synthetic fragrance materials and perfume oils. The fragrance material industry is a supplier to the manufacturers of perfumes, cosmetics and other products of this nature.
Fragrance Materials, Natural: are products of plant and animal origin, extracted by different processes. Some examples are essential oils, absolutes, concretes, resins, balsams and tinctures.
Synthetic Fragrance Materials: are produced from chemical raw materials. Half-synthetic fragrance zaterials are chemically-processed isolates from natural products.
Fragrance Organ: is the term for the working area of the perfumer, in which the fragrance materials he uses in his work are arranged around him in tiers, like the pipes of an organ around an organist.
Fresh: in relation to the effect of a perfume, is a subjective feeling that can be caused by different fragrance impressions. In European regions, freshness is generally associated with lemon, lavender and green notes, light floral components: light and clear elements, mostly. In other regions, North America for example, sweet and powdery perfumes are also considered as fresh.
Fruity: is the fragrance impression of natural fruit odors, such as raspberry, apple, plum, etc. Their sensual role in perfumery is only to produce nuances. However, single fruit odors do become fashionable, from time to time, in such products as shampoos. Exaggerated doses of fruit notes give perfumes the effect of being "edible," i.e. the opposite of erotic.
Gas Chromatograph: is an instrument for the analysis of organic chemical mixtures. In a spiral ass or metal column, packed with porous material, the various components are separated according to physical properties such as polarity ad vapor pressure. The signals received are amplified and, with the help of a printer, printed onto a chromatogram.
Grasse: is a town in Southern France, behind the Riviera. The town has a editerranean climate, which is well-suited for the cultivation of plants that produce perfume raw materials. For many years, Grasse has been one of the principal centers in the world for the production of perfume materials.
Green: is the general term for the odors of grass, leaves, stems and so on. Green fragrances exist in many different nuances. They are widely used in perfumery for the purpose of giving special accents to top-notes.
Harmony: is the tuning of all the components of a perfume so that no single element in any phase of the fragrance evaporation becomes so prominent that it could be considered unpleasant. It is easy to achieve harmony between similarsmelling substances but quite difficult between the contrasting elements which are often introduced into a perfume to give originality and character. Bringing these warring elements into harmony is a challenging task for the perfumer.
Hay-Like: notes are used mainly in "Nature" fragrances, in different ranges of application-for instance, in medicinal bath-products. Masculine perfumes also can contain hay-like components (Fougere). The synthetic substance with a hay-like odor that is most important in the industry is coumarin.
Herbaceous: Many fragrance substances have herbaceous components, and are reminiscent of herbs and drugs. Well-known, and often-used examples are mugwort, sage, rosemary and lavender. Herbaceous accents are widely used in masculine perfumes. Heart or Middle Note: The heart is the second, middle phase of a perfume's fragrance evaporation, occuring after the top note fades away. It is mainly produced by floral, spicy or woody components and represents, as its name indicates, the heart of the perfume.
Heavy: Fragrances in which the least-volatile ingredients such as mosses and animal notes dominate are called heavy perfumes. Since these ingredients are part of the top note, a heavy perfume can be identified as such at first impact. Heavy substances are used predominantly in chypre notes.
Infusion: is the production of flower oils by extraction at 65 degrees centigrade with the use of alcohol.
Ingredient: An ingredient is one of the parts that go to make up a mixture.
Intensity: The intensity, or fragrance strength of a perfume compound is dependent on the strength of the individual ingredients, and the skill that is exerted in the blending of these components.
Jasminey: Perfumes that contain the scent of the jasmine blossom as a principal component are termed jasminey. There are many interpretations of the jasmine note, which range from natural blossom odors to stylized, fantasy bases.
Lavender Oil: possesses a dry-fresh, herbaceous odor. It is used in many perfumes, especially in masculine notes.
Leather Notes: as well as tobacco notes, play a significant part in the masculine perfumes. Both natural expressions and fantasy interpretations of this theme exist and are used in the perfume industry. Leather notes also play a part in feminine perfumes; for instance, in the chypre family.
Light: perfume notes owe their character mainly to fresh, citrus, floral, fruity and green components. They contain practically no sweet, balsamic or sultry elements. It used to be difficult, but today, the perfumer has the means to give good fixation also to perfumes of light character.
Maceration: is a procedure by which blossom oils are extracted with the aid of warm fats. It is similar to enfleurage.
Masculine: as well as feminine, in the perfume sense, are subjective fragrance impressions. Normally, the term "masculine," is applied to fragrance favored by men. These contain dry notes of tobbaco, spices, mosses and woods. They are generally less floral than feminine perfumes, and often contain a high percentage of fresh ingredients. In the past few years, masculine and feminine notes have come closer and closer together.
Maturity: A perfume must mature for four to eight week,. before it can go on sale. This time is necessary tc allow the individual ingredients to blend, bringing the fragrance to its full development.
Metallic: notes are used in perfumes to produce cool, clean effects. They are used in nuances, and very seldom occur dominantly.
Mint-Like: Fragrance notes which are reminiscent of peppermint and spearmint are used in perfumery to produce special fresh effects in the top-note.
Mixing plant: The stage in the production of perfume in which the concentrated perfume oils are mixed, on a large scale, according to the perfumer's recipe, is known as the mixing or compounding plant.
Modifying: means varying an existing, basic fragrance theme by changing some ingredients or introducing new, additional nuances. The result may impress a lay-person as a new perfume, but the expert will recognize a mere variation on an old theme.
Mossy: odors of different kinds of tree mosses (especially oak moss) play an important part in nearly all perfume types. They are of special significance in the chypre notes. Mossy nuances are very complex and can have, besides the basic moss element, algae-like, leathery, woody and other characteristics. Their especially good fixing qualities, as well as their ability to give fragrances substance and depth, make them indispensable.
Musk: is a secretion of the musk deer. The material extracted from musk-sacs has a strong animal-smell. The natural product, as well as chemicals with musk-like odors, are of great significance in the perfume industry. They give perfumes a warm, erotic note and have outstanding fixing characteristics. Perfumes that are based on musk notes are especially subject to fashionable trends.
Napthalene-Like: notes are reminiscent of mothballs. These odors are found in animal products. Their significance in perfumery is minimal.
Narcotic: perfumes often contain high percentages of heavy blossom fragrances (jasmine, tuberose, for example), and animalic components. The narcotic effect of natural flower scents is at its peak at the time when they fade. Careful dosing of "narcotic" components is necessary if a perfume is not to have an obtrusive or tiring effect.
Nauncers: are fragrance materials that are not the main fragrance carriers in a composition, but are used to support and round these carriers off, or produce special effects which contribute to the all around picture of a fragrance. Obtrusive: Perfumes can be obtrusive when they are used to excess. Similarly, an ingredient can obtrude if the fragrance composition is not well balanced.
Oriental: is the term for perfumes containing ingredients that are reminiscent of fragrances from the East. Such ingredients can be exotic blossom notes, spices, balsams, resins, and animalic components. The character of the Oriental perfumes is such that they are mostly used as so-called winter or evening perfumes.
Perfume: "per fumum" - comes from the Latin, meaning "through the smoke." In ancient times, fragrant resins were burned as incense offerings that was the origin. Today, we understand perfume to be a solution containing 15% to 30% perfume oils and 85% to 70% alcohol, respectively.
Perfume Oil or Perfume Compound: Perfume oil is a concentrated mixture of fragrance substances, which is used for the perfuming of various products.
Perfumer: is the term for the creator of fragrance compositions. His qualifications are: an odormemory which is the result of long training, the ability to differentiate between hundreds of odors, knowledge of the reciprocal action of individual fragrance substances in the composition, and creative talent. The perfumer's education generally lasts for five years.
Pheromones: are chemical substances, which make communication possible between living beings. They are mainly significant as a medium which insects use for sexual attraction. Most pheromones are odorless to human beings.
Pomade: is a substance that is produced through the effleurage process. In this procedure, animal fat is saturated with blossom fragrance. The mixture of fat and blossom oil is the pomade. It is either used straight or processed into absolute from pomade. Parts of the fatty odor attach to the fragrance of the blossom oils, giving the products made by this process a unique character.
Powdery: is the fragrance effect produced by the interaction of long lasting, mossy, woody, sweet and crystalline elements. Many perfumes leave a powdery overall impression after evaporation of the fresh and floral ingredients.
Resinoids: are extracts from resins or plant parts (except for the blossom). In addition to the essential oils, they contain ingredients such as the waxes and resins, which are soluble in whatever solvent is being used in the particular process. In order to facilitate the use of resinoids, high-boiling, odorless solvents are often added to them. Resinoids often have a dark color and especially good fixing properties.
Resins: are mainly solid or semi-solid organic plant secretions. They must go through a cleaning process.
Rounding-Off: means harmonizing and binding together the principal ingredients of a perfume, either with odorants that are closely related odor-wise, or with other adjuncts that also fit into the picture and can therefore help to produce a balanced, harmonious whole.
Sensory Adaptation: is the tendency of the human sense of smell to become less and less able to perceive a particular fragrance the longer it is exposed to it. When the sense of smell is "adapted" to a fragrance, it is no longer able to recognize it. Yet it recovers quickly from this fatigue.
Sensual: is the term for a perfume with an erotically stimulating effect. An accentuated portion of animalic components and exotic blossom notes is usually to be found in such perfumes. Properly used, many perfumes can produce pleasant emotions and moods, since the sense of smell is directly connected with the part of the brain in which feelings and sexual behavior are controlled.
Smell: is the sensory perception of odorous organic compounds. It occurs in the act of inhaling, and so air is the carrier.
Smoky: notes are used mainly in masculine perfumes to create natural leather effects. In modern leather notes the smoky notes are thrust into the background by animalic notes but the old, classical leather perfumes contain noticeable smoky notes, which originate from birch tar oil.
Solvents: are liquids, virtually odor- and colorless, used in perfumery for the dilution of perfume oils. The most commonly used solvent is ethyl alcohol. Some solvents also have fixative properties.
Sour: A perfume is said to smell sour when it has aged prematurely owing to inappropriate storage. When this happens, chemical alterations occur which are irreversible, and the perfume must be considered "off."
Spicy: fragrance notes are used in the perfume industry in the form of essential oils from almost all the well-known spices. For example, cinnamon and clove are used widely in Oriental perfumes. Many masculine perfumes contain portions of spice-oils-for example: marjoram, coriander and pepper.
Splash Cologne: is light, watery alcohol/perfume oil solution of 1%-3% perfume oil in 99%-97% alcohol, respectively. They are used generously, for refreshment for the whole body, after the shower or bath for example. They have a subtle perfuming effect, and the notes are fresh and clean. Some countries especially favor this application, and two prime examples are France and Spain.
Stability: is a perfume's resistance to the harmful effects of light and oxygen. In proper storage (protected from light at room temperature, closed bottle) perfumes keep an average of six months without deterioration. Many keep for a much longer period.
Substantivity: The lasting properties of a fragrance are dependent on its degree of volatility. Heavy, nonvolatile substances are used for the fixing of perfume compositions.
Sweet: elements exist in many perfumes, in differing amounts, especially in Oriental and heavy chypre perfumes. The best-known example of a sweet-smelling natural product is the extract of the vanilla bean.
Tincure: is cold-processed alcoholic extract from natural products. They were much favored in former times, but their use today is on the decline for economic reasons.
Tobacco Notes: natural and synthetic, are predominantly used in masculine perfumes. In addition to the pure tobacco note, scents such as honey and plum, which are used to flavor tobacco, also play a part.
Tetrahexyldecyl Ascorbate: is an oil-soluble form of Vitamin C, which is one of today's most dynamic natural skin care ingredients. It has been clinically shown to reverse photo aging (wrinkles and age spots) and boost the skin's collagen production for smoother and firmer skin. In addition, Vitamin C inhibits UVA and UVB radiation-induced damage, also resulting in younger looking skin.
Tocopherol (Vitamin E): is an antioxidant derived from plant oils.
Wheat Germ Extract: used in cosmetics because of its large Vitamin E content. This extract is obtained from the wheat kernel embryo separated in milling.
Witch Hazel Extract: a natural extract from the Hamamelis plant, fights free radicals. It is also non-drying, soothing and has astringent properties.
Xanthan Gum: A natural wax is a carrier agent and thickener.
Zinc Oxide: has been used to protect, soothe, and heal the skin. It provides an excellent barrier to the sun and other irritants. It is somewhat astringent, antiseptic, and antibacterial. When used in sunscreen preparations, it can contribute to and/or increase SPF. It has UVA and UVB absorption characteristics. Zinc Oxide is obtained from zinc ore, a commonly found mineral, and is relatively non allergenic. 2-Ethylhexyl Methoxycinnamate (Octyl Methoxycinnamate), derived from balsam of Peru, cocoa leaves, cinnamon leaves and storax trees, is a sunscreen with superior UV absorption capability. 2-Ethylhexyl Salicylate (octyl salicylate) is a sunscreen for UVB absorption.
Tips For Wearing Perfume
* When you apply perfumes, apply them to pulse points such as the folds in the crook of your elbow, back of knees, wrist and neck.
* Make sure you do not rub wrists together as this crushes the smell.
* If you want to keep your perfume as fresh as the day you bought it, keep the bottle in a cool, dark place.
* Go for lighter scents during the hotter weather and keep the stronger scents for the drier, cool weather. Keep bottles tightly stopped, away from direct heat and out of sunlight.
* Try spraying perfume on the air and walk into it, to have a head to toe experience.
* People with oily skin tend to have stronger fragrance as compared to those with dry skin.
* Apply perfume right after you shower. Your pores will be open and your skin will be warm.
* Some perfumes come in blue or opaque bottles and these store perfume well.
Wednesday, June 4, 2008
Lack of vitamin D causes fragile bones: Study
Most patients with vitamin D deficiency were found to have a history of fragile bones that exposed them to the risk of osteopororis, according to a study.
The bone disease not only affected adults, but also children. Vitamin D insufficiency may also contribute to low bone mass or even aggravate underlying metabolic bone disease.
Vitamin D is essential in bone growth and mineralization in children and adults. A mild deficiency causes rickets in children and can be overcome with increased amount of nutritional vitamin D intake as well as sun exposure.
The new study, conducted by US physicians, is the first to investigate vitamin D insufficiency in pediatric patients with low bone density.
Sasigarn Bowden, the study's co-author, explained: "We need to check vitamin D levels in all patients with history of multiple fractures or low bone density and treat the vitamin D problem if the levels are low. "The supplementation of vitamin D should be a priority in the management of pediatric patients with osteoporosis or osteopenia in order to optimize their bone health and potentially prevent fractures."
Potential factors that may account for vitamin D insufficiency in various chronic medical conditions include low vitamin D intake and decreased sun exposure.
Four studies in Europe found that 80 percent of healthy children and adolescents had insufficient vitamin D levels in the winter. The study has been published in the latest issue of the journal Paediatrics.
The bone disease not only affected adults, but also children. Vitamin D insufficiency may also contribute to low bone mass or even aggravate underlying metabolic bone disease.
Vitamin D is essential in bone growth and mineralization in children and adults. A mild deficiency causes rickets in children and can be overcome with increased amount of nutritional vitamin D intake as well as sun exposure.
The new study, conducted by US physicians, is the first to investigate vitamin D insufficiency in pediatric patients with low bone density.
Sasigarn Bowden, the study's co-author, explained: "We need to check vitamin D levels in all patients with history of multiple fractures or low bone density and treat the vitamin D problem if the levels are low. "The supplementation of vitamin D should be a priority in the management of pediatric patients with osteoporosis or osteopenia in order to optimize their bone health and potentially prevent fractures."
Potential factors that may account for vitamin D insufficiency in various chronic medical conditions include low vitamin D intake and decreased sun exposure.
Four studies in Europe found that 80 percent of healthy children and adolescents had insufficient vitamin D levels in the winter. The study has been published in the latest issue of the journal Paediatrics.
Thursday, May 15, 2008
Where we are going..............
This is the need of the hour for Our politicians to think about our nation, kindly ignore your difference of opinions and act to save our nation.
'India ranks fourth in list of terror-hit countries'
The recent serial bomb blasts in Jaipur have only reinforced India's position of being one of the worst terrorism-hit countries in the world. Barring trouble-torn nations like Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan, terrorist violence claims more lives in India than in any other nation.
According to the 2007 Report on Terrorism brought out by the National Counter-terrorism Centre, a US Government agency, 1,093 people were killed in terrorist incidents in India last year. These also included the killings of Hindi speaking people in Assam by the ULFA activists and the deaths caused in Naxalite violence in Chhattisgarh.
The report also listed 13 high-casualty incidents of terrorist violence in the country, including the serial blasts in UP and Hyderabad and the Samjhauta Express blast.
Worldwide, 22,685 people were killed by terrorists in about 14,000 terrorist strikes. Iraq alone accounted for 13,606 of those deaths. Afghanistan with 1,966 casualties and Pakistan with 1,335 deaths were the other countries to have witnessed large number of killings by terrorist organisations, the report, released on April 30, said.
While Pakistan recorded more than 850 major and minor incidents, not all of which led to casualties, Iraq had more than 6,200 incidents of terrorist violence.
'India ranks fourth in list of terror-hit countries'
The recent serial bomb blasts in Jaipur have only reinforced India's position of being one of the worst terrorism-hit countries in the world. Barring trouble-torn nations like Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan, terrorist violence claims more lives in India than in any other nation.
According to the 2007 Report on Terrorism brought out by the National Counter-terrorism Centre, a US Government agency, 1,093 people were killed in terrorist incidents in India last year. These also included the killings of Hindi speaking people in Assam by the ULFA activists and the deaths caused in Naxalite violence in Chhattisgarh.
The report also listed 13 high-casualty incidents of terrorist violence in the country, including the serial blasts in UP and Hyderabad and the Samjhauta Express blast.
Worldwide, 22,685 people were killed by terrorists in about 14,000 terrorist strikes. Iraq alone accounted for 13,606 of those deaths. Afghanistan with 1,966 casualties and Pakistan with 1,335 deaths were the other countries to have witnessed large number of killings by terrorist organisations, the report, released on April 30, said.
While Pakistan recorded more than 850 major and minor incidents, not all of which led to casualties, Iraq had more than 6,200 incidents of terrorist violence.
Friday, May 9, 2008
GOLD > Market
Gold, the first metal used by humans, has remained as one of the most valued metals since prehistoric times.
Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BCE describe gold, which king Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was as "common as dust" in Egypt. Egypt and Nubia had the resources to make them major gold-producing areas for much of history. Gold is also mentioned several times in the Old Testament.
The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its gold. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas, and this gold was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia between 643 and 630 BCE.
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America, Peru, and Colombia.
Gold has long been considered one of the most precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the gold standard) in history. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties (see gold album). Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was made fun of by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia.
On that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly-dressed of their party.
There is an age-old tradition of biting gold in order to test its authenticity. Although this is certainly not a professional way of examining gold, the bite test should score the gold because gold is considered a soft metal according to the Mohs' scale of mineral hardness. The purer the gold the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this test because lead is softer than gold.
Gold in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all gold ever produced has been extracted since 1910.[2] It has been estimated that all the gold in the world that has ever been refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) a side (8000 m³).
During the 19th century, gold rushes occurred whenever large gold deposits were discovered, including the California, Colorado, Otago, Australian, Witwatersrand, Black Hills, and Klondike gold rushes. Because of its historically high value, much of the gold mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another.
Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy weight and by grams. When it is alloyed with other metals the term carat or karat is used to indicate the amount of gold present, with 24 carats being pure gold and lower ratings proportionally less.
The purity of a gold bar can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995.
The price of gold is determined on the open market, but a procedure known as the Gold Fixing in London, originating in 1919, provides a twice-daily benchmark figure to the industry.
Historically gold was used to back currency; in an economic system known as the gold standard, a certain weight of gold was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was revalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961 it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased gold demand.
On 17 March 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the gold pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby gold was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of gold was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical gold reserves as a store of value although the level has generally been declining. The largest gold depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York.
Since 1968 the price of gold on the open market has ranged widely, with a record high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on 21 June 1999 (London Fixing).[5] On 11 May 2006 the London gold fixing was $715.50/oz.[6]
Over 2005 the World Gold Council estimated total global gold supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes.
Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BCE describe gold, which king Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was as "common as dust" in Egypt. Egypt and Nubia had the resources to make them major gold-producing areas for much of history. Gold is also mentioned several times in the Old Testament.
The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its gold. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas, and this gold was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia between 643 and 630 BCE.
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America, Peru, and Colombia.
Gold has long been considered one of the most precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the gold standard) in history. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties (see gold album). Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was made fun of by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia.
On that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly-dressed of their party.
There is an age-old tradition of biting gold in order to test its authenticity. Although this is certainly not a professional way of examining gold, the bite test should score the gold because gold is considered a soft metal according to the Mohs' scale of mineral hardness. The purer the gold the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this test because lead is softer than gold.
Gold in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all gold ever produced has been extracted since 1910.[2] It has been estimated that all the gold in the world that has ever been refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) a side (8000 m³).
During the 19th century, gold rushes occurred whenever large gold deposits were discovered, including the California, Colorado, Otago, Australian, Witwatersrand, Black Hills, and Klondike gold rushes. Because of its historically high value, much of the gold mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another.
Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy weight and by grams. When it is alloyed with other metals the term carat or karat is used to indicate the amount of gold present, with 24 carats being pure gold and lower ratings proportionally less.
The purity of a gold bar can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995.
The price of gold is determined on the open market, but a procedure known as the Gold Fixing in London, originating in 1919, provides a twice-daily benchmark figure to the industry.
Historically gold was used to back currency; in an economic system known as the gold standard, a certain weight of gold was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was revalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961 it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased gold demand.
On 17 March 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the gold pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby gold was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of gold was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical gold reserves as a store of value although the level has generally been declining. The largest gold depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York.
Since 1968 the price of gold on the open market has ranged widely, with a record high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on 21 June 1999 (London Fixing).[5] On 11 May 2006 the London gold fixing was $715.50/oz.[6]
Over 2005 the World Gold Council estimated total global gold supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes.
Thursday, May 8, 2008
Know some thing about Vasthu
About Vasthu
'Vas' means 'to dwell' or 'to occupy'. Vasthu means 'dwelling place.' Vasthu Shastra is the set of guidelines prescribed by the Rishis or learned men of ancient India for planning and constructing our dwelling places which range from our homes, cities, states, countries and eventually extend to our planet and the universe!
Nature consists of Panchabhutam, the five elements -
Akasham or Sky, Vaayu or Air, Agni or Fire, Bhumi or Earth and Jalam or Water
The shastras or the ancient Indian texts on science tell us that cosmic energy has a specific influence on living beings.
Five elements reside in nature in specific proportions. Vasthu Shastra involves the alignment of these five basic elements according to the law of nature. The effects of these five elements have to be studied to appreciate the science of vasthu in its pure form and also to pacify skeptics who question the efficiency and validity of vasthu shastra.
Plants and animals live in perfect harmony with nature. But we human beings, the superior beings that inhabit the earth, have forgotten how to keep peace with our surroundings. If we can modify our homes to harness the energy of the cosmos in such a way that our homes are in complete harmony with our bodies it can help us to succeed in all our endeavors. Due to the magnetic properties of the earth, the needle of a compass always points to the north.
Since vasthu is based on the permanent property of the earth namely inclination towards the north, the effect of vasthu is universal . Which means the effect of vasthu does not merely extend to the people of India or to the followers of Hinduism!
The Vasthusasthram has developed over generations as a result of observations of the influence of the SUN and the MAGNETIC fields on earth and living bodies, mentally and physically.
For any problems that you may be having with your health, mental and body peace, it is recommended that you construct buildings "as per the principals of Vasthusasthra - THE LAW OF NATURE
There are two parts to Vasthu Sasthra.
1. The science of Vasthu of land.
2. The science of Vasthu of building.
The science of Vasthu of land:-
We have to study the level, shape, and size of land before starting any construction. The shape of a land may be changed by adding or deducting parts or corners. We can also provide boundaries to separate the compound to suit Vasthu Sasthram. A land may be square or rectangle with all corners, Right angle is good for construction. A plot that slopes to the north or east or northeast is good for any purpose. In a plot having a way on its east and north and slopes to the east or north is considered very good for construction or for business.
The science of Vasthu of building:-
Before undertaking any construction of building you have to think of your financial position and requirements and consult an experienced engineer having a thorough knowledge of the preliminaries of Vasthu. While planning your home, remember to position your master bedroom in the southwest, sleeping with your head towards the south or east. Businessmen may sleep in the southeast or northwest bedroom. Our head has a magnetic power, and has to be placed opposite to the north i.e. place your head towards the south for a sound sleep.
The water tank should be positioned in the southwest / south / west and never the northeast. An underground tank or well in the northeast is considered good.
Necessity of Vasthu:-
In remodelling any existing house, you must consult a Vasthu expert. Prabhakara Menon says that he has come across many cases where people complain of financial and other problems after the marriage of a son or daughter. This, he says, is due to the remodelling or rearranging of rooms or a change in position of doors or windows in connection with the marriage.
'Vas' means 'to dwell' or 'to occupy'. Vasthu means 'dwelling place.' Vasthu Shastra is the set of guidelines prescribed by the Rishis or learned men of ancient India for planning and constructing our dwelling places which range from our homes, cities, states, countries and eventually extend to our planet and the universe!
Nature consists of Panchabhutam, the five elements -
Akasham or Sky, Vaayu or Air, Agni or Fire, Bhumi or Earth and Jalam or Water
The shastras or the ancient Indian texts on science tell us that cosmic energy has a specific influence on living beings.
Five elements reside in nature in specific proportions. Vasthu Shastra involves the alignment of these five basic elements according to the law of nature. The effects of these five elements have to be studied to appreciate the science of vasthu in its pure form and also to pacify skeptics who question the efficiency and validity of vasthu shastra.
Plants and animals live in perfect harmony with nature. But we human beings, the superior beings that inhabit the earth, have forgotten how to keep peace with our surroundings. If we can modify our homes to harness the energy of the cosmos in such a way that our homes are in complete harmony with our bodies it can help us to succeed in all our endeavors. Due to the magnetic properties of the earth, the needle of a compass always points to the north.
Since vasthu is based on the permanent property of the earth namely inclination towards the north, the effect of vasthu is universal . Which means the effect of vasthu does not merely extend to the people of India or to the followers of Hinduism!
The Vasthusasthram has developed over generations as a result of observations of the influence of the SUN and the MAGNETIC fields on earth and living bodies, mentally and physically.
For any problems that you may be having with your health, mental and body peace, it is recommended that you construct buildings "as per the principals of Vasthusasthra - THE LAW OF NATURE
There are two parts to Vasthu Sasthra.
1. The science of Vasthu of land.
2. The science of Vasthu of building.
The science of Vasthu of land:-
We have to study the level, shape, and size of land before starting any construction. The shape of a land may be changed by adding or deducting parts or corners. We can also provide boundaries to separate the compound to suit Vasthu Sasthram. A land may be square or rectangle with all corners, Right angle is good for construction. A plot that slopes to the north or east or northeast is good for any purpose. In a plot having a way on its east and north and slopes to the east or north is considered very good for construction or for business.
The science of Vasthu of building:-
Before undertaking any construction of building you have to think of your financial position and requirements and consult an experienced engineer having a thorough knowledge of the preliminaries of Vasthu. While planning your home, remember to position your master bedroom in the southwest, sleeping with your head towards the south or east. Businessmen may sleep in the southeast or northwest bedroom. Our head has a magnetic power, and has to be placed opposite to the north i.e. place your head towards the south for a sound sleep.
The water tank should be positioned in the southwest / south / west and never the northeast. An underground tank or well in the northeast is considered good.
Necessity of Vasthu:-
In remodelling any existing house, you must consult a Vasthu expert. Prabhakara Menon says that he has come across many cases where people complain of financial and other problems after the marriage of a son or daughter. This, he says, is due to the remodelling or rearranging of rooms or a change in position of doors or windows in connection with the marriage.
Saturday, May 3, 2008
Why should anyone, especially you, care about Tibet?
Until 1949, Tibet was an independent Buddhist nation in the Himalayas which had little contact with the rest of the world. It existed as a rich cultural storehouse of the Mahayana and Vajrayana teachings of Buddhism. Religion was a unifying theme among the Tibetans -- as was their own language, literature, art, and world view developed by living at high altitudes, under harsh conditions, in a balance with their environment.
The Dalai Lama, an individual said to be an incarnation of the Buddha of Compassion, had been both the political and spiritual leader of the country. The current Dalai Lama (the 14th) was only 24 years old when this all came to an end in 1959. The Communist Chinese invasion in 1950 led to years of turmoil, that culminated in the complete overthrow of the Tibetan Government and the self-imposed exile of the Dalai Lama and 100,000 Tibetans in 1959.
Since that time over a million Tibetans have been killed. With the Chinese policy of resettlement of Chinese to Tibet, Tibetans have become a minority in their own country. Chinese is the official language. Compared to pre-1959 levels, only 1/20 monks are still allowed to practice, under the government's watch. Up to 6,000 monasteries and shrines have been destroyed. Famines have appeared for the first time in recorded history, natural resources are devastated, and wildlife depleted to extinction. Tibetan culture comes close to being eradicated there.
Peaceful demonstrations/protests/speech/writings by nuns, monks, and Tibetan laypeople have resulted in deaths and thousands of arrests. These political prisoners are tortured and held in sub-standard conditions, with little hope of justice. Unless we can all take part and recognize Tibet's loss as our own, the future looks grim.
Some Startling Facts
1. The peaceful buddhist country of Tibet was invaded by Communists China in 1949. Since that time, over 1.2 million out of 6 Tibetans have been killed, over 6000 monastaries have been destroyed, and thousands of TIbetans have been imprisoned.
2. In Tibet today, there is no freedom of speech, religion, or press and arbitrary dissidents continue.
3. The Dalai Lama, Tibet's political and spiritual leader, fled to India in 1959. He now lives among over 100,000 other Tibetan refugees and their government in exile.
4. Forced abortion, sterilization of Tibetan women and the transfer of low income Chinese citizens threaten the survival of Tibet's unique culture. In some Tibetan provinces, Chinese settlers outnumber Tibetans 7 to 1.
5. Within China itself, massive human rights abuses continue. It is estimated that there up to twenty million Chinese citizens working in prison camps.
6. Most of the Tibetan plataeu lies above 14,000 feet. Tibet is the source of five of Asia's greatest rivers, which over 2 billion people depend upon. Since 1959, the Chinese government estimates that they have removed over $54 billion worth of timber. Over 80% of their forests have been destroyed, and large amoutns nuclear and toxic waste have been disposed of in Tibet.
7. Despite these facts and figures, the US government and US corporations continue to support China economically. This shows their blatant lack of respect for these critical issues of political and religious freedom and human rights.
Yes, things are bad, but you may still ask, why Tibet? There are hundreds of other countries in which equal or worse environmental and human rights devistation has occured. Why Tibet? Tibet can be used as the catalyst for change in human rights, womens rights, political, religious and cultural freedom across the globe. Through a concerted effort, the citizens of Earth can stand up and say "NO!" to the corporations and governments that continue to abuse it's people and misuse it's resources. The struggles in Tibet are symbolic for every human rights struggle. Please, get involved. There is only a limited time left until there will longer be a Tibet to save.
Early History
Although the history of the Tibetan state started in 127 B.C., with the establishment of the Yarlung Dynasty, the country as we know it was first unified in the 7th Century A.D., under King Songtsen Gampo and his successors. Tibet was one of the mightiest powers of Asia for the three centuries that followed, as a pillar inscription at the foot of the Potala Palace in Lhasa and Chinese Tang histories of the period confirm. A formal peace treat concluded between China and Tibet in 821/823 demarcated the borders between the two countries and ensured that, "Tibetans shall be happy in Tibet and Chinese shall be happy in China."
Mongol Influence
As Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire expanded towards Europe in the West and China in the East in the 13th Century, Tibetan leaders of powerful Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism concluded an agreement with the Mongol rulers in order to avoid the conquest of Tibet. The Tibetan Lama promised political loyalty and religious blessings and teachings in exchange for patronage and protection. The religious relationship became so important that when, decades later, Kublai Khan conquered China and established the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), he invited the Sakya Lama to become the Imperial Preceptor and supreme pontiff of his empire.
The relationship that developed and continued to exist into the 20th Century between the Mongols and Tibetans was a reflect of the close racial, cultural, and especially religious affinity between the two Central Asian peoples. The Mongol Empire was a world empire and, whatever the relationship between its rulers and the Tibetans, the Mongols never integrated the administration of Tibet and China or appended Tibet to China in any manner.
Tibet broke political ties with the Yuan emperor in 1350, before China regained its independence from the Mongols. Not until the 18th Century did Tibet again come under a degree of foreign influence.
Relations with Manchu, Gorkha and British Neighbors
Tibet developed no ties with Chinese Ming Dynasty (1386-1644). On the other hand, the Dalai Lama, who established his sovereign rule over Tibet with the help of a Mongol patron in 1642, did develop close religious ties with the Manchu emperors, who conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). The Dalai Lama agreed to become the spiritual guide of the Manchu emperor, and accepted patronage and protection in exchange. This "priest-patron" relationship (known in Tibetan as
Choe-Yoen), which the Dalai Lama also maintained with some Mongol princes and Tibetan nobles, was the only formal tie that existed between the Tibetans and Manchus during the Qing Dynasty. It did not, in itself, affect Tibet's independence.
On the political level, some powerful Manchu emperors succeeded in exerting a degree of influence over Tibet. Thus, between 1720 and 1792, Emperors Kangxi, Yong Zhen, and Qianlong sent imperial troops to Tibet four times to protect the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan people from foreign invasions by Mongols, and Gorkhas or from internal unrest. These expeditions provided the emperor with the means for establishing influence in Tibet. He sent representatives to the Tibetan capital, Lhasa, some of whom successfully exercised their influence, in his name, over the Tibetan government, particularly
with respect to the conduct of foreign relations. At the height of Manchu power, which lasted a few decades, the situation was not unlike that which can exist between a superpower and a satellite or protectorate, and therefore one which, though politically significant, does not extinguish the independent existence of the weaker state. Tibet was never incorporated into the Manchu Empire, much less China, and it continued to conduct its relations with neighboring states largely on its own.
Manchu influence did not last very long. It was entirely ineffective by the time the British briefly invaded Lhasa and concluded a bilateral treaty with Tibet, the Lhasa Convention, in 1904. Despite this loss of influence, the imperial government in Peking continued to claim some authority over Tibet, particularly with respect to its international relations, an authority which the British imperial government termed "suzerainty" in its dealings with Peking and St. Petersburg, Russia. Chinese imperial armies tried to reassert actual influence in 1910 by invading the country and occupying Lhasa. Following the 1911 revolution in China and the overthrow of the Manchu Empire, the troops surrendered to the Tibetan army and were repatriated under a sino-Tibetan peace accord. The Dalai Lama reasserted Tibet's full independence internally, by issuing a proclamation, and externally, in communications to
foreign rulers and in a treaty with Mongolia.
Tibet in the 20th Century
Tibet's status following the expulsion of Manchu troops is not subject to serious dispute. What ever ties existed between the Dalai Lama and the Manchu emperors of the Qing Dynasty were extinguished with the fall of that empire and dynasty. From 1911 to 1950, Tibet successfully avoided undue foreign influence and behaved, in every respect, as a fully independent state.
Tibet maintained diplomatic relations with nepal, Bhutan, Britain, and later with independent India. Relations with China remain strained. The Chinese waged a border war with Tibet while formally urging Tibet to "join" the Chinese Republic, claiming all along to the world that Tibet already was one of China's "five races."
In an effort to reduce Sino-Tibetan tensions, the British convened a tripartite conference in Simla in 1913 where the representative of the three states met on equal terms. As the British delegation reminded his Chinese counterpart, Tibet entered the conference as "independent nation recognizing no allegiance to China." The conference was unsuccessful in that it did not resolve the difference between Tibet and China. It was, nevertheless, significant in that Anglo-Tibetans friendship was reaffirmed with the conclusion of bilateral trade and border agreements. In a Joint Declaration, Great
Britain and Tibet bound themselves not to recognize Chinese suzerainty or other special rights in Tibet unless China signed the draft Simla Convention which would have guaranteed Tibet's greater borders, its territorial integrity and fully autonomy. China never signed the Convention, however, leaving the terms of the Joint Declaration in full force.
Tibet conducted its international relations primarily by dealing with the British, Chinese, Nepalese, and Bhutanese diplomatic missions in Lhasa, but also through government delegations travelling abroad. When India became independent, the British mission in Lhasa was replaced by an Indian one. During World War II Tibet remained neutral, despite combined pressure from the United States, Great Britain, and China to allow passage of raw materials through Tibet.
Tibet never maintained extensive international relations, but those countries with whom it did maintain relations treated Tibet as they would with any sovereign state. Its international status was in fact no different from, say, that of Nepal. Thus, when Nepal applied for United Nations' membership in 1949, it cited its treaty and diplomatic relations with Tibet to demonstrate its full international personality.
The Invasion of Tibet
The turning point of Tibet's history came in 1949, when the People's Liberation Army of the PRC first crossed into Tibet. After defeating the small Tibetan army and occupying half the country, the Chinese government imposed the so-called "17-Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet" on the Tibetan government in May 1951. Because it was singed under duress, the agreement lacked validity under international law. The presence of 40,000 troops in Tibet, the threat of an immediate occupation of Lhasa, and the prospect of the total obliteration of the Tibetan state left Tibetans little choice.
As the resistance to the Chinese occupation escalated, particularly in Eastern Tibet, the Chinese repression, which included the destruction of religious buildings and the imprisonment of monks and other community leaders, increased dramatically. By 1959, popular uprising culminated in massive demonstrations in Lhasa. By the time China crushed the uprising, 87,000 Tibetans were dead in the Lhasa region alone, and the Dalai Lama had fled to India, where he now heads the Tibetan Government-in-exile, headquartered in Dharmsala, India. In 1963, the Dalai Lama promulgated a constitution for a democratic Tibet. It has been successfully implemented, to the extent possible, by the Government-in-exile.
Meanwhile, in Tibet religious persecution, consistent violations of human rights, and the wholesale destruction of religious and historic buildings by the occupying authorities have not succeeded in destroying the spirit of the Tibetan people to resist the destruction of the national identity. 1.2 million Tibetans have lost their lives, (over one-sixth of the population) as a result of the Chinese occupation. But the new generation of Tibetans seems just as determined to regain the country's independence as the older generation was.
Present Situation
In the course of Tibet's 2,000-year history, the country came under a degree of foreign influence only for short periods of time in the 13th and 18th centuries. Few independent countries today can claim as impressive a record. As the ambassador of Ireland to the UN remarked during the General Assembly debates on the question of Tibet, "for thousands of years, for a couple of thousands years at any rate, (Tibet) was a free and as fully in control of its own affairs as any nation in this Assembly, and a thousand times more free to look after it own affairs than many of the nations here."
From a legal standpoint, Tibet has not lost its statehood. It is an independent start under illegal occupation. Neither China's military invasion nor the continuing occupation by the PLA has transferred the sovereignty of Tibet to China. As pointed out earlier the Chinese government has never claimed to have acquired sovereignty over Tibet by conquest. Indeed, China recognizes that the use or threat of force (outside the exceptional circumstances provided for in the UN Charter), the imposition of an unequal treaty, or the continued illegal occupation of a country can never grant an invader legal title to
territory. Its claims are based solely on the alleged subjection of Tibet to a few of China's strongest foreign rulers in the 13th and 18th centuries.
Source:(Michael C. van Walt van Praag practices international law. His publication include The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and Prospects in International Law (Westview Press, Boulder, Colo., Wisdom Press, London, 1987) and numerous articles in book collections and magazines.)
© Copyright 2000-2005 www.freetibet.net. All Rights Reserved
The Dalai Lama, an individual said to be an incarnation of the Buddha of Compassion, had been both the political and spiritual leader of the country. The current Dalai Lama (the 14th) was only 24 years old when this all came to an end in 1959. The Communist Chinese invasion in 1950 led to years of turmoil, that culminated in the complete overthrow of the Tibetan Government and the self-imposed exile of the Dalai Lama and 100,000 Tibetans in 1959.
Since that time over a million Tibetans have been killed. With the Chinese policy of resettlement of Chinese to Tibet, Tibetans have become a minority in their own country. Chinese is the official language. Compared to pre-1959 levels, only 1/20 monks are still allowed to practice, under the government's watch. Up to 6,000 monasteries and shrines have been destroyed. Famines have appeared for the first time in recorded history, natural resources are devastated, and wildlife depleted to extinction. Tibetan culture comes close to being eradicated there.
Peaceful demonstrations/protests/speech/writings by nuns, monks, and Tibetan laypeople have resulted in deaths and thousands of arrests. These political prisoners are tortured and held in sub-standard conditions, with little hope of justice. Unless we can all take part and recognize Tibet's loss as our own, the future looks grim.
Some Startling Facts
1. The peaceful buddhist country of Tibet was invaded by Communists China in 1949. Since that time, over 1.2 million out of 6 Tibetans have been killed, over 6000 monastaries have been destroyed, and thousands of TIbetans have been imprisoned.
2. In Tibet today, there is no freedom of speech, religion, or press and arbitrary dissidents continue.
3. The Dalai Lama, Tibet's political and spiritual leader, fled to India in 1959. He now lives among over 100,000 other Tibetan refugees and their government in exile.
4. Forced abortion, sterilization of Tibetan women and the transfer of low income Chinese citizens threaten the survival of Tibet's unique culture. In some Tibetan provinces, Chinese settlers outnumber Tibetans 7 to 1.
5. Within China itself, massive human rights abuses continue. It is estimated that there up to twenty million Chinese citizens working in prison camps.
6. Most of the Tibetan plataeu lies above 14,000 feet. Tibet is the source of five of Asia's greatest rivers, which over 2 billion people depend upon. Since 1959, the Chinese government estimates that they have removed over $54 billion worth of timber. Over 80% of their forests have been destroyed, and large amoutns nuclear and toxic waste have been disposed of in Tibet.
7. Despite these facts and figures, the US government and US corporations continue to support China economically. This shows their blatant lack of respect for these critical issues of political and religious freedom and human rights.
Yes, things are bad, but you may still ask, why Tibet? There are hundreds of other countries in which equal or worse environmental and human rights devistation has occured. Why Tibet? Tibet can be used as the catalyst for change in human rights, womens rights, political, religious and cultural freedom across the globe. Through a concerted effort, the citizens of Earth can stand up and say "NO!" to the corporations and governments that continue to abuse it's people and misuse it's resources. The struggles in Tibet are symbolic for every human rights struggle. Please, get involved. There is only a limited time left until there will longer be a Tibet to save.
Early History
Although the history of the Tibetan state started in 127 B.C., with the establishment of the Yarlung Dynasty, the country as we know it was first unified in the 7th Century A.D., under King Songtsen Gampo and his successors. Tibet was one of the mightiest powers of Asia for the three centuries that followed, as a pillar inscription at the foot of the Potala Palace in Lhasa and Chinese Tang histories of the period confirm. A formal peace treat concluded between China and Tibet in 821/823 demarcated the borders between the two countries and ensured that, "Tibetans shall be happy in Tibet and Chinese shall be happy in China."
Mongol Influence
As Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire expanded towards Europe in the West and China in the East in the 13th Century, Tibetan leaders of powerful Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism concluded an agreement with the Mongol rulers in order to avoid the conquest of Tibet. The Tibetan Lama promised political loyalty and religious blessings and teachings in exchange for patronage and protection. The religious relationship became so important that when, decades later, Kublai Khan conquered China and established the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), he invited the Sakya Lama to become the Imperial Preceptor and supreme pontiff of his empire.
The relationship that developed and continued to exist into the 20th Century between the Mongols and Tibetans was a reflect of the close racial, cultural, and especially religious affinity between the two Central Asian peoples. The Mongol Empire was a world empire and, whatever the relationship between its rulers and the Tibetans, the Mongols never integrated the administration of Tibet and China or appended Tibet to China in any manner.
Tibet broke political ties with the Yuan emperor in 1350, before China regained its independence from the Mongols. Not until the 18th Century did Tibet again come under a degree of foreign influence.
Relations with Manchu, Gorkha and British Neighbors
Tibet developed no ties with Chinese Ming Dynasty (1386-1644). On the other hand, the Dalai Lama, who established his sovereign rule over Tibet with the help of a Mongol patron in 1642, did develop close religious ties with the Manchu emperors, who conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). The Dalai Lama agreed to become the spiritual guide of the Manchu emperor, and accepted patronage and protection in exchange. This "priest-patron" relationship (known in Tibetan as
Choe-Yoen), which the Dalai Lama also maintained with some Mongol princes and Tibetan nobles, was the only formal tie that existed between the Tibetans and Manchus during the Qing Dynasty. It did not, in itself, affect Tibet's independence.
On the political level, some powerful Manchu emperors succeeded in exerting a degree of influence over Tibet. Thus, between 1720 and 1792, Emperors Kangxi, Yong Zhen, and Qianlong sent imperial troops to Tibet four times to protect the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan people from foreign invasions by Mongols, and Gorkhas or from internal unrest. These expeditions provided the emperor with the means for establishing influence in Tibet. He sent representatives to the Tibetan capital, Lhasa, some of whom successfully exercised their influence, in his name, over the Tibetan government, particularly
with respect to the conduct of foreign relations. At the height of Manchu power, which lasted a few decades, the situation was not unlike that which can exist between a superpower and a satellite or protectorate, and therefore one which, though politically significant, does not extinguish the independent existence of the weaker state. Tibet was never incorporated into the Manchu Empire, much less China, and it continued to conduct its relations with neighboring states largely on its own.
Manchu influence did not last very long. It was entirely ineffective by the time the British briefly invaded Lhasa and concluded a bilateral treaty with Tibet, the Lhasa Convention, in 1904. Despite this loss of influence, the imperial government in Peking continued to claim some authority over Tibet, particularly with respect to its international relations, an authority which the British imperial government termed "suzerainty" in its dealings with Peking and St. Petersburg, Russia. Chinese imperial armies tried to reassert actual influence in 1910 by invading the country and occupying Lhasa. Following the 1911 revolution in China and the overthrow of the Manchu Empire, the troops surrendered to the Tibetan army and were repatriated under a sino-Tibetan peace accord. The Dalai Lama reasserted Tibet's full independence internally, by issuing a proclamation, and externally, in communications to
foreign rulers and in a treaty with Mongolia.
Tibet in the 20th Century
Tibet's status following the expulsion of Manchu troops is not subject to serious dispute. What ever ties existed between the Dalai Lama and the Manchu emperors of the Qing Dynasty were extinguished with the fall of that empire and dynasty. From 1911 to 1950, Tibet successfully avoided undue foreign influence and behaved, in every respect, as a fully independent state.
Tibet maintained diplomatic relations with nepal, Bhutan, Britain, and later with independent India. Relations with China remain strained. The Chinese waged a border war with Tibet while formally urging Tibet to "join" the Chinese Republic, claiming all along to the world that Tibet already was one of China's "five races."
In an effort to reduce Sino-Tibetan tensions, the British convened a tripartite conference in Simla in 1913 where the representative of the three states met on equal terms. As the British delegation reminded his Chinese counterpart, Tibet entered the conference as "independent nation recognizing no allegiance to China." The conference was unsuccessful in that it did not resolve the difference between Tibet and China. It was, nevertheless, significant in that Anglo-Tibetans friendship was reaffirmed with the conclusion of bilateral trade and border agreements. In a Joint Declaration, Great
Britain and Tibet bound themselves not to recognize Chinese suzerainty or other special rights in Tibet unless China signed the draft Simla Convention which would have guaranteed Tibet's greater borders, its territorial integrity and fully autonomy. China never signed the Convention, however, leaving the terms of the Joint Declaration in full force.
Tibet conducted its international relations primarily by dealing with the British, Chinese, Nepalese, and Bhutanese diplomatic missions in Lhasa, but also through government delegations travelling abroad. When India became independent, the British mission in Lhasa was replaced by an Indian one. During World War II Tibet remained neutral, despite combined pressure from the United States, Great Britain, and China to allow passage of raw materials through Tibet.
Tibet never maintained extensive international relations, but those countries with whom it did maintain relations treated Tibet as they would with any sovereign state. Its international status was in fact no different from, say, that of Nepal. Thus, when Nepal applied for United Nations' membership in 1949, it cited its treaty and diplomatic relations with Tibet to demonstrate its full international personality.
The Invasion of Tibet
The turning point of Tibet's history came in 1949, when the People's Liberation Army of the PRC first crossed into Tibet. After defeating the small Tibetan army and occupying half the country, the Chinese government imposed the so-called "17-Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet" on the Tibetan government in May 1951. Because it was singed under duress, the agreement lacked validity under international law. The presence of 40,000 troops in Tibet, the threat of an immediate occupation of Lhasa, and the prospect of the total obliteration of the Tibetan state left Tibetans little choice.
As the resistance to the Chinese occupation escalated, particularly in Eastern Tibet, the Chinese repression, which included the destruction of religious buildings and the imprisonment of monks and other community leaders, increased dramatically. By 1959, popular uprising culminated in massive demonstrations in Lhasa. By the time China crushed the uprising, 87,000 Tibetans were dead in the Lhasa region alone, and the Dalai Lama had fled to India, where he now heads the Tibetan Government-in-exile, headquartered in Dharmsala, India. In 1963, the Dalai Lama promulgated a constitution for a democratic Tibet. It has been successfully implemented, to the extent possible, by the Government-in-exile.
Meanwhile, in Tibet religious persecution, consistent violations of human rights, and the wholesale destruction of religious and historic buildings by the occupying authorities have not succeeded in destroying the spirit of the Tibetan people to resist the destruction of the national identity. 1.2 million Tibetans have lost their lives, (over one-sixth of the population) as a result of the Chinese occupation. But the new generation of Tibetans seems just as determined to regain the country's independence as the older generation was.
Present Situation
In the course of Tibet's 2,000-year history, the country came under a degree of foreign influence only for short periods of time in the 13th and 18th centuries. Few independent countries today can claim as impressive a record. As the ambassador of Ireland to the UN remarked during the General Assembly debates on the question of Tibet, "for thousands of years, for a couple of thousands years at any rate, (Tibet) was a free and as fully in control of its own affairs as any nation in this Assembly, and a thousand times more free to look after it own affairs than many of the nations here."
From a legal standpoint, Tibet has not lost its statehood. It is an independent start under illegal occupation. Neither China's military invasion nor the continuing occupation by the PLA has transferred the sovereignty of Tibet to China. As pointed out earlier the Chinese government has never claimed to have acquired sovereignty over Tibet by conquest. Indeed, China recognizes that the use or threat of force (outside the exceptional circumstances provided for in the UN Charter), the imposition of an unequal treaty, or the continued illegal occupation of a country can never grant an invader legal title to
territory. Its claims are based solely on the alleged subjection of Tibet to a few of China's strongest foreign rulers in the 13th and 18th centuries.
Source:(Michael C. van Walt van Praag practices international law. His publication include The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and Prospects in International Law (Westview Press, Boulder, Colo., Wisdom Press, London, 1987) and numerous articles in book collections and magazines.)
© Copyright 2000-2005 www.freetibet.net. All Rights Reserved
Monday, April 7, 2008
It seems they are brainless > Karnataka would approach SC on Hogenakkal: Krishna
Karnataka would approach SC on Hogenakkal: Krishna
New Delhi, April 5
Former Karnataka Chief Minister S M Krishna has said the state would approach the Supreme Court on the Hogenakkal issue and he was not "concerned" whether the DMK will get upset or the ruling UPA coalition will get affected by the move.
"We can always go to the Supreme Court you know, so that protection is there for every state," he told a private television news channel.
Asked if the Central leadership would allow the Karnataka unit of the party to go ahead with the move, the former Governor of Maharashtra, who has made a comeback into state politics said, "....If it comes to that, we have no other alternative".
"...We are not really concerned whether the DMK is going to be upset or it is going to have an impact on the Central Government, all that we are concerned is how does this project affect Karnataka in terms of the water sharing agreement between Karnataka and the Tamil Nadu," he said when asked whether the Congress will risk upsetting the DMK which is a coalition partner at the Centre.
The central leadership of the party, however, had adopted a cautious approach yesterday saying the state units of the party in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu were free to take their own stands in the matter.
The party apparently adopted cautious approach on the issue in view of the coming Assembly elections in Karnataka.
Comments:
Mr. Krishna should know, how shamfull and sinfull act against hindu dharma for resisting the drinking water.
New Delhi, April 5
Former Karnataka Chief Minister S M Krishna has said the state would approach the Supreme Court on the Hogenakkal issue and he was not "concerned" whether the DMK will get upset or the ruling UPA coalition will get affected by the move.
"We can always go to the Supreme Court you know, so that protection is there for every state," he told a private television news channel.
Asked if the Central leadership would allow the Karnataka unit of the party to go ahead with the move, the former Governor of Maharashtra, who has made a comeback into state politics said, "....If it comes to that, we have no other alternative".
"...We are not really concerned whether the DMK is going to be upset or it is going to have an impact on the Central Government, all that we are concerned is how does this project affect Karnataka in terms of the water sharing agreement between Karnataka and the Tamil Nadu," he said when asked whether the Congress will risk upsetting the DMK which is a coalition partner at the Centre.
The central leadership of the party, however, had adopted a cautious approach yesterday saying the state units of the party in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu were free to take their own stands in the matter.
The party apparently adopted cautious approach on the issue in view of the coming Assembly elections in Karnataka.
Comments:
Mr. Krishna should know, how shamfull and sinfull act against hindu dharma for resisting the drinking water.
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